Article Post:

The Basic Scientific Research Behind the Future Hydrogen Economy

U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science Conducts Hydrogen Research

DOE’s Office of Science, through its Office of Basic Energy Sciences (BES), seeks to foster revolutionary advances in hydrogen production, delivery, storage, and conversion technologies to close the gap between today’s knowledge and technology and that required for a future hydrogen economy. Recent advances in nanosciences, catalysis, modeling, simulation, and bio-inspired approaches offer exciting new research opportunities for a variety of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. By emphasizing cross-cutting research directions, and promoting broad interdisciplinary efforts, strong coordination between the basic and applied sciences, and cooperation among BES and the Offices of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Fossil Energy and Nuclear Energy, scientific breakthroughs in one area can be leveraged to advance progress in others.

This integrated approach will ensure that discoveries and related conceptual breakthroughs achieved in basic research programs will provide a foundation for the innovative design of materials and processes that will produce improvements in the performance, cost, and reliability of hydrogen production, storage, and use. The Department of Energy is confident basic research can help overcome technical challenges to a hydrogen economy.

The priority basic research areas identified in this report include:

Priority Research Areas for Hydrogen Production, Storage and Fuel Cells

Novel Materials for Hydrogen Storage

On-board hydrogen storage is considered to be the most challenging aspect for the successful transition to a hydrogen economy. Basic research is essential for identifying novel materials and processes that can provide potential breakthroughs needed to meet the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative (HFI) goals.

Complex hydrides. A basic understanding of the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of metal hydrides and chemical hydrides is needed.

Nanostructured materials. Tailored nanostructures need to be explored since nanophase materials offer promise for superior hydrogen storage due to short diffusion distances, new phases with better capacity, reduced heats of adsorption/desorption, faster kinetics, and surface states capable of catalyzing hydrogen dissociation.

Other materials. Research is needed to explore other novel storage materials, e.g., those based on nitrides, imides, and other materials that fall outside of metal hydrides, chemical hydrides, and carbon-based hydrogen storage materials.

Theory, modeling, and simulation. Theory, modeling, and simulation will enable (1) understanding the physics and chemistry of hydrogen interactions at the appropriate size scale and (2) the ability to simulate, predict, and design materials performance in service.

Novel analytical and characterization tools. Sophisticated analytical techniques are needed to meet the high sensitivity requirements associated with characterizing hydrogen-materials interactions while maintaining high specificity.

Membranes for Separation, Purification, and Ion Transport

Membranes that selectively transport atomic, molecular, or ionic hydrogen and oxygen are vital to the hydrogen economy as they purify hydrogen fuel streams, transport hydrogen or oxygen ions between electrochemical half-reactions, and separate hydrogen in electrochemical, photochemical, or thermochemical production routes.

Integrated nanoscale architectures. The similar nanoscale dimensions of catalyst particles and of pores that transport fuel, ions, and oxygen hold promises to enable gas diffusion layers, catalyst support networks, and electrolytic membranes in fuel cells to be integrated into a single network for ion, electron, and gas transport.

Fuel cell membranes. Novel membranes with higher ionic conductivity, better mechanical strength, lower cost, and longer life are critical to the success of fuel cell technologies.

Theory, modeling, and simulation of membranes and fuel cells. The diversity of transport mechanisms and their dependence on local defect structure requires extensive theory, modeling and simulation to establish the basic principles and design strategies for improved membrane materials.

Design of Catalysts at the Nanoscale

Catalysis is vital to the success of the HFI owing to its roles in converting solar energy to chemical energy, producing hydrogen from water or carbon-containing fuels such as coal and biomass, and producing electricity from hydrogen in fuel cells. Catalysts can also increase the efficiency of the uptake and release of stored hydrogen with reduced need for thermal activation. Breakthroughs in catalytic research would impact the thermodynamic efficiency of hydrogen production, storage, and use, and thus improve the economic efficiency with which the primary energy sources — fossil, biomass, solar, or nuclear — serve our energy needs.

Nanoscale catalysts. Nanostructured materials — with high surface areas and large numbers of controllable sites that serve as active catalytic regions — open new opportunities for significantly enhancing catalytic activity and specificity.

Innovative synthetic techniques. Emerging technologies that allow synthesis at the nanoscale with atomic-scale precision will open new opportunities for producing tailored structures of catalysts on supports with controlled size, shape and surface characteristics. New, high-throughput innovative synthesis methods can be exploited in combination with theory and advanced measurement capabilities to accelerate the development of designed catalysts.

Novel characterization techniques. To fully understand complex catalytic mechanisms will require detailed characterization of the active sites; identification of the interaction of the reactants, intermediates and products with the active sites; conceptualization and, possibly, detection of the transition states; and quantification of the dynamics of the entire catalytic process.

Theory, modeling, and simulation of catalytic pathways. Close coupling between experimental observations and theory, modeling, and simulation will provide unprecedented capabilities to design more selective, robust, and impurity-tolerant catalysts for hydrogen production, storage, and use.

Solar Hydrogen Production

Efficient conversion of sunlight to hydrogen by splitting water through photovoltaic cells driving electrolysis or through direct photocatalysis at energy costs competitive with fossil fuels is a major enabling milestone for a viable hydrogen economy.

Nanoscale structures. The sequential processes of light collection, charge separation, and transport in photovoltaic and photocatalytic devices require nanoscale architectural control and manipulation. Light harvesting and novel photoconversion concepts. New strategies are needed to efficiently use the entire solar spectrum.

Organic semiconductors and other high performance materials. The organic semiconductors offer an inexpensive alternative to traditional semiconductors for photovoltaic and photocatalytic devices.

Theory, modeling, and simulation of photochemical processes. Theory and modeling are needed to develop a predictive framework for the dynamic behavior of molecules, complex photoredox systems, interfaces, and photoelectrochemical cells.

Bio-inspired Materials and Processes

Fundamental research into the molecular mechanisms underlying biological hydrogen production is the essential key to our ability to adapt, exploit, and extend what nature has accomplished for our own renewable energy needs.

Enzyme catalysts. A fundamental understanding is needed of the structure and chemical mechanism of enzyme complexes that support hydrogen generation.

Bio-hybrid energy coupled systems. As more is understood about biocatalytic hydrogen production, there is the possibility that critical enzymes that are synthesized and employed by biological systems can be harvested and combined with synthetic materials to construct robust, efficient hybrid systems that are scalable to hydrogen production facilities.

Theory, modeling, and nanostructure design. Taking cues from these various natural processes, computational approaches may be employed for rational redesign of enzymes for improved hydrogen production, reduced sensitivity to inhibitors, and improved stability.

Department of Energy Program Contact:

Patricia M. Dehmer
Office of Basic Energy Sciences (SC-22)
U.S. Department of Energy
Washington, DC 20585-1290
301-903-3081



Article Source: U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program

Article Post:

Using Solar Energy to Generate Hydrogen

H2 Fuel From Renewable Solar Power Via Electrolysis of Water

By Graeme Sprigge

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe and powers our greatest energy production source, familiar to all of us - the SUN. Hydrogen itself makes up 75% of the universes elemental mass, obviously not all of it is on earth.

But how can we use hydrogen as a fuel. Hydrogen, like fossil fuels is an explosive gas. When it combines in an explosive reaction with oxygen it produces only one element - WATER. In other words there are no toxic outputs.

It is not all rosy though for our friend Mr Hydrogen, since there are cost and efficiency factors involved in making hydrogen fuel a reality. There are a number of possibilities, such as producing hydrogen from bio-products like manure and waste material, producing hydrogen from water and others.

Some researchers in Australia are looking at a radical new way of using a catalyst (a substance that encourages a chemical reaction by its own properties) - titanium dioxide - to assist hydrogen and oxygen from separating within water to produce pure hydrogen gas. This hydrogen is then used to power fuel cells and make electricity.

The initial power source is our old friend Mr Sun. Simply it works like this. The sun power and the catalyst split the water H20, into hydrogen and oxygen, so we now have H2 plus 02. This hydrogen is then used to power a fuel cell, which produces electricity.

The advantage of the catalyst is that it requires much less solar energy to bring this about, making the whole reaction more cost effective.

This is only one method that is being explored at the moment, but it is a step towards exploring the factors involved in producing hydrogen efficiently for our global well being.



This article was brought to you by Hydrogen Autos where you will find many more videos and articles on hydrogen, hydrogen powered cars and vehicles.


Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Graeme_Sprigge
http://EzineArticles.com/?Using-Solar-Energy-to-Generate-Hydrogen&id=417475

Article Post:

How Different Types of Alternative Fuel Are Produced

Alternative Fuel Information: Fuel Production

Alternative fuels, as defined by the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct), include hydrogen, ethanol, methanol, biodiesel, natural gas, propane, p-series fuels and electricity. These fuels are being used worldwide in a variety of vehicle applications.

Using these alternative fuels in vehicles can generally reduce harmful pollutants and exhaust emissions. In addition, most of these fuels can be domestically produced and derived from renewable sources.

How Alternative Fuels Are Made:

How is Hydrogen Made?

Hydrogen Production

Hydrogen can be produced using diverse, domestic resources including fossil fuels, such as natural gas and coal (with carbon sequestration); nuclear; and biomass and other renewable energy technologies, such as wind, solar, geothermal, and hydro-electric power. Researchers are working to develop a wide range of technologies to produce hydrogen economically and in environmentally friendly ways.

Today the two most common methods used to produce hydrogen fuel are:

Producing Hydrogen from Natural Gas

The predominant method for producing synthesis gas is steam reforming of natural gas, although other hydrocarbons can be used as feedstocks. For example, biomass and coal can be gasified and used in a steam reforming process to create hydrogen.

Producing Hydrogen from Water Using Electrolysis

Electrolysis uses electrical energy to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. The electrical energy can come from any electricity production source including renewable fuels.

How is Ethanol Made?

Ethanol Production

Ethanol can be produced from any biological feedstocks that contain appreciable amounts of sugar or materials that can be converted into sugar such as starch or cellulose. Sugar beets and sugar cane are examples of feedstocks that contain sugar. Corn contains starch that can relatively easily be converted into sugar. A significant percentage of trees and grasses are made up of cellulose, which can also be converted to sugar, although with more difficulty than required to convert starch.

The ethanol production process starts by grinding up the feedstock so it is more easily and quickly processed in the following steps. Once ground up, the sugar is either dissolved out of the material or the starch or cellulose is converted into sugar. The sugar is then fed to microbes that use it for food, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide in the process. A final step purifies the ethanol to the desired concentration.

Ethanol is also made from a wet-milling process. Many larger ethanol producers use this process, which also yields products such as high-fructose corn sweetener.

How is Methanol Made?

Methanol Production

Methanol is predominantly produced by steam reforming of natural gas to create a synthesis gas, which is then fed into a reactor vessel in the presence of a catalyst to produce methanol and water vapor. Although a variety of feedstocks other than natural gas can and have been used, today’s economics favor natural gas.

Synthesis gas refers to combinations of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen. While a large amount of synthesis gas is used to make methanol, most synthesis gas is used to make ammonia. As a result, most methanol plants are adjacent to or are part of ammonia plants. The synthesis gas is fed into another reactor vessel under high temperatures and pressures, and CO and hydrogen are combined in the presence of a catalyst to produce methanol. Finally, the reactor product is distilled to purify and separate the methanol from the reactor effluent.

How is Biodiesel Made?

Biodiesel Production

Biodiesel fuel can be made from new or used vegetable oils and animal fats, which are nontoxic, biodegradable, renewable resources. Fats and oils are chemically reacted with an alcohol (methanol is the usual choice) to produce chemical compounds known as fatty acid methyl esters. Biodiesel is the name given to these esters when they’re intended for use as fuel. Glycerol (used in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, among other markets) is produced as a coproduct.

Biodiesel can be produced by a variety of esterification technologies. The oils and fats are filtered and preprocessed to remove water and contaminants. If free fatty acids are present, they can be removed or transformed into biodiesel using special pretreatment technologies (PDF 5 KB) Download Adobe Reader. The pretreated oils and fats are then mixed with an alcohol (usually methanol) and a catalyst (usually sodium hydroxide). The oil molecules (triglycerides) are broken apart and reformed into methylesters and glycerol, which are then separated from each other and purified.

Approximately 55% of the biodiesel industry can use any fat or oil feedstock, including recycled cooking grease. The other half of the industry is limited to vegetable oils, the least expensive of which is soy oil. The soy industry has been the driving force behind biodiesel commercialization because of excess production capacity, product surpluses, and declining prices. Similar issues apply to the recycled grease and animal fats industry, even though these feedstocks are less expensive than soy oils.

Based on the combined resources of both industries, there is enough feedstock to supply 1.9 billion gallons of biodiesel (under policies designed to encourage biodiesel use). This represents roughly 5% of on-road diesel used in the United States.

How is Natural Gas Made?

Natural Gas Fuel Production

Most natural gas consumed in the United States is domestically produced. Gas streams produced from reservoirs contain natural gas, liquids, and other materials. Processing is required to separate the gas from petroleum liquids and to remove contaminants. In addition, natural gas (methane) can also come from landfill gas and water/sewage treatment.

First, the gas is separated from free liquids such as crude oil, hydrocarbon condensate, water, and entrained solids. The separated gas is further processed to meet specified requirements. For example, natural gas for transmission companies must generally meet certain pipeline quality specifications with respect to water content, hydrocarbon dewpoint, heating value, and hydrogen-sulfide content.

A dehydration plant controls water content; a gas processing plant removes certain hydrocarbon components to hydrocarbon dewpoint specifications; and a gas sweetening plant removes hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur compounds (when present).

How is Propane Made?

Propane Gas Production

Propane is a by-product from two sources: natural gas processing and crude oil refining. Most of the LPG used in the United States is produced domestically. When natural gas is produced, it contains methane and other light hydrocarbons that are separated in a gas processing plant. Because propane boils at -44°F and ethane boils at °F, it is separated from methane by combining increasing pressure and decreasing temperature.

The natural gas liquid components recovered during processing include ethane, propane, and butane, as well as heavier hydrocarbons.

Propane and butane, along with other gases, are also produced during crude refining as by-products of the processes that rearrange or break down molecular structure to obtain more desirable petroleum compounds.

How are P-Series Alternative Fuels Made?

New Pentanes Plus "P-Series" Fuel Production

P-Series fuel is a unique blend of natural gas liquids (pentanes plus), ethanol, and the biomass-derived co-solvent methyltetrahydrofuran (MeTHF). P-Series fuels are clear, colorless, 89-93 octane, liquid blends that are formulated to be used in flexible fuel vehicles (FFV’s). P-Series are designed to be used alone or freely mixed with gasoline in any proportion inside the FFV’s gas tank. These fuels are not currently being produced in large quantities and are not widely used.

How is Electricity Made?

Electricity Production / Generation

Electricity is produced from power plants located throughout the country, transmitted to substations through high voltage transmission systems, stepped down to lower voltages, and carried to homes and businesses through distribution systems.

The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) describes the electric vehicle infrastructure as being 98% in place. The remaining 2% involves developing the connection from the grid to the vehicle and determining how recharging vehicles might affect the grid.

Some utilities have developed special time-of-use meters and off-peak electric rates to separately monitor EV electricity use from the home and provide incentives to recharge at night when the overall load is down.

Electricity to power vehicles can also be made from renewable resources using solar or wind technologies.



Article Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy (EERE)

Print This Page